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| * Abu-Mahfouz, Ahmad (2008): [http://www.sil.org/siljot/2008/1/51140/siljot2008-1-01.pdf Translation as a blending of cultures], in: JOT 1/08. S. 1-5. | | * Abu-Mahfouz, Ahmad (2008): [http://www.sil.org/siljot/2008/1/51140/siljot2008-1-01.pdf Translation as a blending of cultures], in: JOT 1/08. S. 1-5. |
| : '''Abstract''': The aim of this paper is to consider translation as a blending of cultures. This paper argues that a translation will never be fair if something new has not been added to it. Therefore, a degree of cultural interface between two language groups (from English to Indian languages, i.e., Bengali, Marathi) is required for translating any text. This paper also describes translation philosophies from nineteenth century India, when the colonial agenda of translating indigenous texts was a part of a larger enterprise of Imperialism, to recent times when the attempt has been to rescue the work of translation from the restrictions imposed by the rhetoric of technical rules regarding transference from Source Language to Target Language. The result is one of blending of the culture of the Source Language of the original text with the conventions and culture of the Target Language, resulting in a translation that is not an exact translation of the original text but that will provide a faithful cultural understanding of the text in the minds of the Target Language readers. | | |
| | * Adler, Joshua J. (1993): [http://jbq.jewishbible.org/assets/Uploads/21/jbq_21.3.pdf Bible Translations. How Reliable?] |
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| | * Barrick, William D. (2001): [http://www.tms.edu/tmsj/tmsj12b.pdf The Integration of OT Theology with Bible Translation]. |
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| | * Barrick, William D. (2005): [http://tms.academia.edu/WilliamBarrick/Papers/1414408/Bible_Translations_as_Great_Literature_Problems_and_Perspectives Bible Translations as Great Literature: Problems and Perspectives]. |
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| * Benn, Keith / Michael Cahill (2011): [http://www.sil.org/siljot/2011/1/928474543393/siljot2011-1-03.pdf Overliteralness and Mother-Tongue Translators], in: JOT 1/11. S. 49-61. | | * Benn, Keith / Michael Cahill (2011): [http://www.sil.org/siljot/2011/1/928474543393/siljot2011-1-03.pdf Overliteralness and Mother-Tongue Translators], in: JOT 1/11. S. 49-61. |
| : '''Abstract''': One barrier to quality in Bible translation is a tendency for translators to translate literally from their primary source text. This is a hazard for any translator, but has particular relevance in the case of Mother-Tongue Translators (MTTs) with minimal training, who are bearing an increasingly larger role in new Bible translations around the globe. In this article, we first examine the problem of overliteralness, observing cases of RL structural adherence to the SL in direct speech, ungrammatical sentences, mistranslation of rhetorical questions, use of idioms, and neglect of discourse factors, etc. The problem of overliteralness extends to information and emotional impact implicit in the SL that is not made explicit in the RL. Reasons for overliteralness include the natural intuitiveness of translating literally, respect for the Word of God (they don’t want to change it), and MTTs’ unawareness of their own language patterns. Since translation consultants are not always familiar with the receptor language, these types of mistakes may escape notice in the checking process. Nonetheless, many MTTs do excellent translation work. We present two major factors that help MTTs avoid overliteralness. Through training and mentoring, they need to absorb the translation principle that gives them “permission” to not be literal. Next, deliberate study of structures of their own language is key, especially contrasting it with structures of the primary source language. Cases where these types of activities are already being done will be presented, and more are encouraged.
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| * Blight, Richard C. (2005): [http://www.sil.org/siljot/2005/1/46688/siljot2005-1-02.pdf Footnotes for meaningful translations of the New Testament], in: JOT 1/05. S. 7-46. | | * Blight, Richard C. (2005): [http://www.sil.org/siljot/2005/1/46688/siljot2005-1-02.pdf Footnotes for meaningful translations of the New Testament], in: JOT 1/05. S. 7-46. |
| : '''Abstract''': Although background information is not communicated by the source text itself, some of this information is needed by the readers of a translation so that they can adequately understand the text. When the readers do not know this information, it needs to be provided by a judicious use of footnotes. The difference between implied linguistic information and assumed background information is described. Then various categories of background information are considered in regard to their relevance in supplying footnotes. The ways in which footnotes can be included in a translation are also described. In an appendix, a minimum list of footnotes for the New Testament is suggested.
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| * De Blois, K.F. / T. Mewe (2002): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/5461/29599 Functional equivalence and the new Dutch translation project], in: Acta Theologica 22/1. S. 214-227. | | * De Blois, K.F. / T. Mewe (2002): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/5461/29599 Functional equivalence and the new Dutch translation project], in: Acta Theologica 22/1. S. 214-227. |
| : '''Abstract''': In this article De Blois and Mewe demonstrate how functional-equivalent principles had been originally defined with regard to the Netherlands Bible Society's Nieuwe Bijbelvertaling (New Bible Translation) and had to be redefined in light of the need for a better theoretical model. The model, outlined in the article, also served as a handle to avoid ambiguity and inconsistency in the way principles were interpreted and / or implemented, and created a framework for responding to needs expressed by the target audience.
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| * Dooley, Robert A. (2005): [http://www.sil.org/siljot/2005/2/46692/siljot2005-2-01.pdf Source-language versus target-language discourse features in translating the Word of God], in: JOT 2/05. S. 1-18. | | * Dooley, Robert A. (2005): [http://www.sil.org/siljot/2005/2/46692/siljot2005-2-01.pdf Source-language versus target-language discourse features in translating the Word of God], in: JOT 2/05. S. 1-18. |
| : '''Abstract''': Many Bible translations, including one in Mbya´ Guarani of Brazil which this article takes as a case study, use natural target-language discourse patterns on &lquo;micro-levels” (within a thematic unit and usually within a sentence or two) but source-text patterns on “macro-levels.” Questions arise: Why should such a strategy be used? Why might it work? On macro-levels, how can readers understand what is presented with source-text patterns? And on micro-levels, how can a translation claim to communicate the author’s original intent when its discourse functions—not just its forms—are radically different from those of the source text? This article explores such questions and proposes answers using concepts from such diverse areas as general cognition, text processing, genre innovation, information structure, indices of markedness and reader confidence.
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| * Du Plooy, H. (2002): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/5464/29602 Listening to the wind in the trees: meaning, interpretation and literary theory], in: Acta Theologica 22/1. S. 266-279. | | * Du Plooy, H. (2002): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/5464/29602 Listening to the wind in the trees: meaning, interpretation and literary theory], in: Acta Theologica 22/1. S. 266-279. |
| : '''Abstract''': In this article the literary theories which dominated textual studies during the twentieth century are discussed briefly, indicating the philosophical roots of these theories. The article points out that whereas theories during the greater part of the twentieth century tended to encourage a more "open" approach to meaning and textuality, there are clear indications of a new awareness of textual constraints in the last decade. The point is made that interpreters and translators should be aware of the philosophical implications as well as of the textual constraints in the different forms of textual processing. In conclusion the responsibility of translators and interpreters of religious texts is emphasised.
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| * Floor, Sebastian (2007): [http://www.sil.org/siljot/2007/2/49507/siljot2007-2-01.pdf Four Bible translation types and some criteria to distinguish them], in: JOT 2/07. S. 1-22. | | * Floor, Sebastian (2007): [http://www.sil.org/siljot/2007/2/49507/siljot2007-2-01.pdf Four Bible translation types and some criteria to distinguish them], in: JOT 2/07. S. 1-22. |
| : '''Abstract''': The purpose of this paper is to contribute to the discussion on the classification of Bible translation types. This paper proposes four types instead of the traditional two: literal and idiomatic or dynamic equivalent. The four types are Type 1) close (or literal) resemblance, Type 2) open resemblance, Type 3) close (or limited) interpretative, and Type 4) open interpretative. There are several continua of criteria: the degree of resemblance to the original semantic content, the degree of explicitness, and the type of adjustments needed to unpack the meaning. Eight criteria of adjustments are proposed to distinguish these four types: 1) order of clauses and phrases, 2) sentence length, 3) reference disambiguation and tracking, 4) concordance of lexical items, 5) key terms and unknown terms, 6) figurative usage and idioms, 7) transition marking, and 8) information structure.
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| * Gutt, Ernst-August (2006): [http://www.sil.org/siljot/2006/1/48000/siljot2006-1-01.pdf Aspects of "cultural literacy" relevant to Bible translation], in: JOT 1/06. S. 1-16. | | * Gutt, Ernst-August (2006): [http://www.sil.org/siljot/2006/1/48000/siljot2006-1-01.pdf Aspects of "cultural literacy" relevant to Bible translation], in: JOT 1/06. S. 1-16. |
| : '''Abstract''': In 1987 E.D. Hirsch published his bestseller Cultural literacy: What every American needs to know. The education system of the time seriously underestimated the importance of background knowledge needed to successfully function in literate American society. Drawing on two decades of experimental research, Hirsch showed that without the background information needed for a given text, readers are effectively illiterate with regard to that text. He argued that quantitatively, too, background knowledge plays a major role in comprehension: the information explicitly stated in any text is only “the tip of the iceberg” of the intended meaning, the bulk needs to be supplied by the reader. In the light of this, Hirsch argued that one of the central goals of the educational system must be to provide American children with an adequate body of knowledge that would enable them to understand all communications addressed to the general public. This body of knowledge he called “cultural literacy.”
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| : Based on three decades of experience in Bible translation, the author of this paper sees some striking parallels with regard to the dominant philosophy in Bible translation. While the provision of biblical background knowledge has been given more attention in some quarters in recent years, it is still far from being acknowledged and treated as a key factor in the planning and execution of Bible translation projects, essential to ensure optimal efficiency of the work and to maximise the impact of the products.
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| : Applying relevant insights gained by Hirsch, the author examines the extent and nature of biblical literacy, that is, the background knowledge, needed for the successful comprehension of a sample text (Lk 10:13–14). This is done with the help of conceptual tools provided by relevance theory, the currently most developed theory of inferential communication. It goes on to the task of systematically identifying mismatches in background knowledge between original and receptor audience. It draws attention to the importance of timing and processing effort in biblical literacy strategies designed to overcome such mismatches. One of the spin-offs of biblical literacy is the need for closer interdisciplinary cooperation between biblical studies, anthropology and translation.
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| * Harmelink, Bryan (2012): [http://www.sil.org/siljot/2012/1/928474548938/siljot2012-1-03.pdf Lexical Pragmatics and Hermeutical Issues in the Translation of Key Terms], in: JOT 1/12. S. 25-35. | | * Harmelink, Bryan (2012): [http://www.sil.org/siljot/2012/1/928474548938/siljot2012-1-03.pdf Lexical Pragmatics and Hermeutical Issues in the Translation of Key Terms], in: JOT 1/12. S. 25-35. |
| : '''Abstract''': Translation involves, among other things, the attempt to communicate the words of one language in another language. An important part of Bible translation is dealing with the translation of key biblical terms. But is it words that we are really translating, or rather the concepts that are associated with those words? Is it reasonable to expect that in translation we will find a word in one language that will communicate “the same meaning” as another word in another language, or borrow a word if necessary? What is the relationship between words and meanings? How are different senses or different meanings bundled together in a single word? Should we be talking in terms of key biblical concepts, rather than key biblical terms, as the goal of what we aim to communicate in translation? This paper draws on insights from the field of lexical pragmatics in order to discuss realities and strategies in translating, based on the principles of representation, underdeterminacy, dynamic context, and the principle of relevance.
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| * Hermanson, E.A. (2002): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/5451/29589 A brief overview of Bible translation in South Africa], in: Acta Theologica 22/1. S. 6-18. | | * Hermanson, E.A. (2002): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/5451/29589 A brief overview of Bible translation in South Africa], in: Acta Theologica 22/1. S. 6-18. |
| : '''Abstract''': Christianity came to South Africa in 1652, but missionary outreach to the indigenous population only began in earnest in the 19th century. The first formal-equivalent Bible translations were done by missionaries in the latter part of the 19th and early 20th century. Since the mid-1960s the Bible Society has facilitated functional-equivalent translations by teams of mother-tongue translators, and is currently completing the Old Testament in Southern Ndebele, the only South African official language without a complete Bible. Advances in translation theory present new challenges in translating the Bible to communicate in the contemporary linguistic situation.
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| * Jordaan, G.J.C. (2002): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/5452/29590 Problems in the theoretical foundations of the functional-equivalent approach], in: Acta Theologica 22/1. S. 19-29. | | * Jordaan, G.J.C. (2002): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/5452/29590 Problems in the theoretical foundations of the functional-equivalent approach], in: Acta Theologica 22/1. S. 19-29. |
| : '''Abstract''': The functional-equivalent approach to Bible translation is based on a specific view of communication, viz. that it is a process which takes place within a closed cultural circle. This view of communication results in a view of the Bible as a time-bound (and not a time-directed) document which can communicate only in the closed circle of sender-message-first readers within their own socio-historical environment. Consequently it is seen as the task of the translator to make the Bible communicate to modern man via a process of transformation of the Biblical message. This transformation is conducted in a manner which corresponds with the idea that textual form and message can be separated. For Christians who view the Bible as God's Word which is time-directed but not time-bound, and at the same time God's Word which communicates with believers of all time, these theoretical viewpoints of the functional- equivalent approach are problematic.
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| * Joubert, S.J. (2002): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/5453/29591 No culture shock? Addressing the Achilles heel of modern Bible translations], in: Acta Theologica 22,1. S. 30-43. | | * Joubert, S.J. (2002): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/5453/29591 No culture shock? Addressing the Achilles heel of modern Bible translations], in: Acta Theologica 22,1. S. 30-43. |
| : '''Abstract''': Modern Bible translations are often more sensitive to the needs of their intended readers than to the right of biblical texts to be heard on their own terms as religious artefacts from the ancient Mediterranean world. Since all biblical documents linguistically embody socio-religious meanings derived from ancient Mediterranean societies, they also need to be experienced as different, even alien, by modern readers. Without an initial culture shock in encountering a Bible translation modern people are held prisoners by Western translations of the Bible. Therefore, translations should instil a new sensitivity among modern readers to the socio-cultural distance between them and the original contexts of the Bible. In order to help facilitate this historical awareness, a new generation of "value added" translations must, in creative and responsible ways, begin to provide a minimum amount of cultural information to assist modern readers in assigning legitimate meanings to the linguistic signs encapsulated on the pages of the Bible.
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| * Kerr, Glenn J. (2011): [http://www.sil.org/siljot/2011/1/928474543391/siljot2011-1-01.pdf Dynamic Equivalence and Its Daugthers: Placing Bible Translation Theories in Their Historical Context], in: JOT 1/11. S. 1-19. | | * Kerr, Glenn J. (2011): [http://www.sil.org/siljot/2011/1/928474543391/siljot2011-1-01.pdf Dynamic Equivalence and Its Daugthers: Placing Bible Translation Theories in Their Historical Context], in: JOT 1/11. S. 1-19. |
| : '''Abstract''': The Bible translation theory called “dynamic equivalence” from the middle of the twentieth century was more than what may be called the first definable theory of Bible translation. Indirectly or directly, it spawned or related to seven other specific theories: meaning-based translation, cultural equivalence or transculturation, complete equivalence, optimal equivalence, closest natural equivalence, functional equivalence, and skopostheorie. Even the term formal equivalence originated during this time. Later in the same period, the code model of communication on which dynamic equivalence was based was challenged by the inference model of relevance theory. All this theoretical writing and postulating has been paralleled by or related to developments in the world of general translation theory and science. Oftentimes these theories have been studied in isolation; this paper, in contrast, examines those theories in their historical context, analyzing their core ideas and how they relate to each other. Concurrently we focus on who the originators of the theories are, and what Bible translation organizations have used them. The study concludes with a practical discussion of what knowing and using these theories might mean in the real world context of Bible translating.
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| * Kruger, A. (2002): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/5455/29593 Corpus-based translation research: Its development and implications for general, literary and Bible translation], in: Acta Theologica 22/1. S. 70-106. | | * Kruger, A. (2002): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/5455/29593 Corpus-based translation research: Its development and implications for general, literary and Bible translation], in: Acta Theologica 22/1. S. 70-106. |
| : '''Abstract''': Corpus-based translation research emerged in the late 1990s as a new area of research in the discipline of translation studies. It is informed by a specific area of linguistics known as corpus linguistics which involves the analysis of large corpora of authentic running text by means of computer software. Within linguistics, this methodology has revolutionised lexicographic practices and methods of language teaching. In translation studies this kind of research involves using computerised corpora to study translated text, not in terms of its equivalence to source texts, but as a valid object of study in its own right. Corpus-based research in translation is concerned with revealing both the universal and the specific features of translation, through the interplay of theoretical constructs and hypotheses, variety of data, novel descriptive categories and a rigorous, flexible methodology, which can be applied to inductive and deductive research, as well as product- and process-oriented studies. In this article an overview is given of the research that has led to the formation of a new subdiscipline in translation studies, called Corpus-based Translation Studies or CTS. I also demonstrate how CTS tools and techniques can be used for the analysis of general and literary translations and therefore also for Bible translations.
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| * Kruger, Y. / J.G. Van der Watt (2002): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/5457/29595 Some considerations on Bible translation as complex process], in: Acta Theologica 22/1. S. 118-139. | | * Kruger, Y. / J.G. Van der Watt (2002): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/5457/29595 Some considerations on Bible translation as complex process], in: Acta Theologica 22/1. S. 118-139. |
| : '''Abstract''': It is argued that translation is a complex process: meaning is "created" by decoding the source text on several levels (for instance, grammatical; structural; literary; and socio-cultural levels). This "meaning" must then be encoded into the target language by means of the linguistic, literary, and cultural conventions of the target language. These different aspects (grammar, structure, etc.) combine in an interactive process and result in meaning. Atomisation or compartmentalisation of the various aspects distorts communication. It is also argued that it should be assumed that what can be said in one language can be said in (translated into) another language, but not necessarily by combining the relevant linguistic, literary and cultural aspects in the target language in the same way as they were combined in the source language. This is because languages do not overlap in their use of words, structures, genres, and social conventions. This inevitably leads to the realisation that a translation could and would never be an exact "copy" of the original.
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| * Levinsohn, Stephen H. (2006): [http://www.sil.org/siljot/2006/2/48005/siljot2006-2-03.pdf Checking translations for discourse features], in: JOT 2/06. S. 23-29. | | * Levinsohn, Stephen H. (2006): [http://www.sil.org/siljot/2006/2/48005/siljot2006-2-03.pdf Checking translations for discourse features], in: JOT 2/06. S. 23-29. |
| : '''Abstract''': This paper builds on one entitled, “The Relevance of Greek Discourse Studies to Exegesis” (Levinsohn 2006b), and seeks to address how consultants might ensure that the features discussed there have been adequately handled in a translation into a receptor language. Initially, translators need to have undertaken appropriate research into the way that relevant discourse features function in the language. The features that should most concern consultants are those that function in significantly different ways in the source and receptor languages. A common error in translation is to use a countering or logical connective (at times, borrowed from the lingua franca of the area) when the natural way to encode the relation in the receptor language is different. Finally, a word-by-word back-translation may well be necessary in order to check that some discourse features have been handled correctly.
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| * Lombaard, C. (2009): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/67241/55341 Hide and Seek. Aspects of the dynamics of bible translation], in: Acta Theologica Supplementum 12, S. 1-15. | | * Lombaard, C. (2009): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/67241/55341 Hide and Seek. Aspects of the dynamics of bible translation], in: Acta Theologica Supplementum 12, S. 1-15. |
| : '''Abstract''': Art may be viewed as fetish, in that it forces meaning on a chaotic world — a dynamic which is briefly illustrated in this article by means of Pablo Picasso’s famous painting, Les Demoiselles d’Avignon. Similarly, translations of the biblical texts, which result from very complex processes, may be viewed as fetishes. Translation thus requires a process of deducing and reducing meaning from relative chaos. A proper view of the nature of the Bible text and the theoretical load of exegetical and translation activities must be cultivated among lay translation users, particularly in our age of rising fundamentalisms. To this end, five suggestions are offered. This view affords Bible translators a more balanced status, namely one of humanity with dignity, than is at times found in some popular circles which regard Bible translators with severe suspicion.
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| * Makutoane, T.J. / J.A. Naudé (2008): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/48879/35227 Towards the design for a new Bible Translation in Sesotho], in: Acta Theologica 28/2. S. 1-32. | | * Makutoane, T.J. / J.A. Naudé (2008): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/48879/35227 Towards the design for a new Bible Translation in Sesotho], in: Acta Theologica 28/2. S. 1-32. |
| : '''Abstract''': The purpose of this article is to suggest a means of translating the Bible and other religious texts to provide for the needs of a community consisting to a large extent of members not able to read written texts. Colonialism in Southern Africa introduced the Bible and Western text-based literacy. Bible translators have focused their efforts on preparing a clear, natural and accurate written/printed text, with the expectation that audiences will understand the message if it is in their own language. Such translations depend on the reader’s ability to understand a written text. Literacy is essentially about control of information, memory, beliefs and distribution. Users still living in an oral culture are excluded. Continuing oral traditions and indigenous forms of cultural expression were and still are beyond the control of literacy. Within these communities, the African oral story-telling tradition survived in several forms within the narrative discourse. In view of the fact that these religious communities consist predominantly of members not able to read writen texts, another vehicle for the transfer of religious thought in Bible and religious translation is suggested. A new trend in Bible translation will consider the requirements of the hearer as well as those of the reader. (The translation has to be read out aloud, heard and listened to.) This trend is reflected in the recently published Contemporary English Version (1995), Das Neue Testament (1999), The Schocken Bible, Volume 1 (1995) and the Nieuwe Bijbel Vertaling (New Dutch Version) (2004). This article’s key issue is that of a translation strategy applicable to the audiences in question. Walter J. Ong mentions nine qualities of oral culture in which he characterises orally expressed thought and expression as opposed to literate thought and expression. The implementation of the features pertaining particularly to the Sesotho oral culture is suggested for the Bible and the religious translation process in Sesotho. These features will assist hearers to grasp the meaning when the translation is read out aloud to them in church or privately.
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| * Marais, J. (2009): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/67250/55350 Wisdom and narrative: Dealing with complexity and judgement in translator education], in: Acta Theologica Supplementum 12, S. 219-233. | | * Marais, J. (2009): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/67250/55350 Wisdom and narrative: Dealing with complexity and judgement in translator education], in: Acta Theologica Supplementum 12, S. 219-233. |
| : '''Abstract''': This article explores wisdom as concept to guide translator education in institutions of higher education. It uses the work of Paul Baltes to posit wisdom as the orchestration of mind and virtue for the common good. Wisdom then signifies the outcome of translator education. Narrative is a mode of communication that is able to foster wisdom. In this respect, the article elaborates on Baker’s use of narrative theory in translation studies. In conclusion certain aspects of education are suggested, which would enhance translators’ wisdom so that they may be able to judge ill-structured, complicated communication situations in order to enhance communication.
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| * Matthews, Thomas G. (2009): [http://www.sil.org/siljot/2009/1/52802/siljot2009-1-01.pdf Toward a prototypical model of culture for Bible translation], in: JOT 1/09. S. 1-61. | | * Matthews, Thomas G. (2009): [http://www.sil.org/siljot/2009/1/52802/siljot2009-1-01.pdf Toward a prototypical model of culture for Bible translation], in: JOT 1/09. S. 1-61. |
| : '''Abstract''': Bible translation is inherently a communication event originating in a historical language and culture. Recipients of translated Scriptures interpret this historical text through their language and cultural grid. They have cultural practices, material culture, beliefs, values, a worldview, image schemas, etc., that can assist or compromise their ability to properly understand the Bible. This work addresses the challenge to translators and translation consultants to more readily identify translation issues that are rooted in the target culture such that they may be further researched and treated as appropriate in the translation and helps. A prototypical model of culture is proposed to support these deliberations, which is comprised of a stratified network of observable cultural systems, beliefs, values, and deep structural components of worldview and image schemas. The cultural model is productively applied to a survey of translation issues rooted in the target cultures of several language teams in eastern Africa, and to three, in-depth analyses from Zinza and Digo Scriptures. The results suggest that Zinza prefer LINK and PATH image schemas over IN/OUT and FULL/EMPTY CONTAINER image schemas in metaphorical extensions such as “in Christ.” In addition, the Digo people’s limited knowledge of biblical construction practices, and the strong impact of the Lake Victoria ecosystem on Zinza culture, present translation challenges to the Digo New Testament and Zinza Genesis, respectively.
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| * Matthews, Thomas G. / Steve Nicolle / Catherine Rountree (2011): [http://www.sil.org/siljot/2011/1/928474543392/siljot2011-1-02.pdf Implicit Aspects of Culture in Source an Target Language Contexts], in: JOT 1/11. S. 21-48. | | * Matthews, Thomas G. / Steve Nicolle / Catherine Rountree (2011): [http://www.sil.org/siljot/2011/1/928474543392/siljot2011-1-02.pdf Implicit Aspects of Culture in Source an Target Language Contexts], in: JOT 1/11. S. 21-48. |
| : '''Abstract''': In the context of Bible translation, the concept of implicit information has typically been constrained to cognitive information that was assumed to be known by the source language audience. In this article implicit information is expanded to include both source and target language contexts because the target audience also brings a wealth of information to the translation and interpretation of target language Scriptures. In addition, a prototypical model of culture is applied to more comprehensively explicate both surface and deep structural aspects of culture, i.e., knowledge, practices, beliefs, values, worldview, and image schema, that were either assumed by the original authors for their audience or are encountered in the interpretation by the target audience. A survey of “offline” author intrusive comments, mostly in the Gospels, suggests that the authors carefully gauged the cultural background of their audience, making explicit, as they deemed necessary, components of cultural knowledge, practices, beliefs and values. A selection of Bible translation issues from East African teams demonstrates that the target audience brings a rich cultural context to the target language Scriptures extending from surface cultural practices to deep structural components of worldview and image schema. The topic of implicit information is further investigated by comparing the perspective of two translation models, meaning-based translation practice and Relevance Theory. The somewhat overlapping technical vocabulary of explicatures and implicatures are contrasted including a comparative analysis of a biblical text. An attempt is made to broaden the scope of both models from cognitive processing of information to a more defendable incorporation of culture and its deep structure. For meaning-based translation practice, the concept of meaning should access the cultural deep structure underlying the source and target languages, which impact it. For Relevance Theory this means a consideration of inferences that are non-propositional—where cultural deep structure markedly influences cognitive effects. New definitions of explicatures and implicatures are proposed that incorporate surface to deep aspects of culture. Applications to translation training and practice are anticipated.
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| * McElhanon, Kenneth A. (2005): [http://www.sil.org/siljot/2005/3/46697/siljot2005-3-02.pdf From Word to scenario: the influence of linguistic theories upon models of translation], in: JOT 3/05. S. 29-67. | | * McElhanon, Kenneth A. (2005): [http://www.sil.org/siljot/2005/3/46697/siljot2005-3-02.pdf From Word to scenario: the influence of linguistic theories upon models of translation], in: JOT 3/05. S. 29-67. |
| : '''Abstract''': In the late twentieth century any given model of translation was constrained by the code model of communication and by the theory of linguistics upon which it was based. Whereas the code model supplied the notion of equivalence as the standard by which a translation was evaluated, the linguistic theory supplied what was regarded as the minimal unit of translation. Accordingly, as linguistic theories were formulated to account for increasingly larger units of text, translation models were redesigned so that the notion of equivalence mirrored the size of these linguistic units. Ultimately, the notion of equivalence became so broad that attempts to achieve it were regarded as illusionary. The result was a Kuhnian revolution of sorts, with two claimants: relevance theory and cognitive linguistics. The remainder of the paper highlights how recent insights of cognitive linguistics are important in the translation praxis.
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| * McElhanon, Kenneth A. (2007): [http://www.sil.org/siljot/2007/1/49047/siljot2007-1-03.pdf When quality is in the eye of the beholder: paradigm communities and the certification of standarts for judging quality], in: JOT 1/07. S. 25-40. | | * McElhanon, Kenneth A. (2007): [http://www.sil.org/siljot/2007/1/49047/siljot2007-1-03.pdf When quality is in the eye of the beholder: paradigm communities and the certification of standarts for judging quality], in: JOT 1/07. S. 25-40. |
| : '''Abstract''': This essay addresses the relativity of knowledge and its relevance to the assessment of quality in translation. The discussion is framed in terms of Thomas Kuhn’s theory of paradigms and paradigm communities. The concept of paradigm is used to delineate the various legacies that inform contemporary translators—their biblical/theological education, their tacit acceptance of an Aristotelian philosophy of language, and the subtle influence of the Age of Enlightenment. Because each model of translation determines the praxis of translation, it also determines how quality is assessed. It is suggested that this is not a serious problem, however, because each model of translation accounts well for particular phenomena of language. A translator is well advised to know the kinds of phenomena that each model handles best. Skill in translation is applying each model to the appropriate phenomena and thereby utilizing any given model to its maximum potential. The burden of responsibility for the quality of a translation falls correctly upon translators and not upon those who check translations.
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| * Mojola, A.O. (2002): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/5460/29598 Bible translation in Africa. What implications doees the new UBS perspective have for Africa? An overview in the light of the emerging new UBS translation initiative], in: Acta Theologica 22/1. S. 202-213. | | * Mojola, A.O. (2002): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/5460/29598 Bible translation in Africa. What implications doees the new UBS perspective have for Africa? An overview in the light of the emerging new UBS translation initiative], in: Acta Theologica 22/1. S. 202-213. |
| : '''Abstract''': This article gives a brief overview of the present Bible translation situation in Africa in global and historical perspective. Special focus is given to the shifts that have occurred with respect to its vision and mission and its ever widening outreach in pursuit of the Christian great commission. Shifts in the nature and types of Bible translators at different periods are looked at as well as the question of the source and receptor texts involved in the translation. The question of the various approaches to translation that have been influential receives attention with special attention being given to the dynamic- and functional-equivalent approach popularised by Eugene Nida. The rest of the paper dwells on the way forward for Bible translation in Africa in view of the influence of the past and in view of the influence of the new approaches and insights from the emerging academic field of translation studies. The recent shift in the UBS approach to translation is briefly and broadly looked at and its implication for Bible translation in Africa discussed.
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| * Naudé, J.A. (2002): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/5454/29592 An overview of recent developments in translation studies with special reference to the implications for Bible translation], in: Acta Theologica 22/1. S. 44-69. | | * Naudé, J.A. (2002): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/5454/29592 An overview of recent developments in translation studies with special reference to the implications for Bible translation], in: Acta Theologica 22/1. S. 44-69. |
| : '''Abstract''': An overview of recent developments of the discipline which deals with the activity of translation, as well as the implications for Bible translation, is presented. Starting off with a discussion of the disciplinary nature of translation studies, an overview of some developments emphasising the source text, the process of translation, the reception of the translated text, and the cultural-social bound character of translation, is offered. Since the early eighties there has been a tendency within translation studies to move away from the normative and prescriptive approaches to translation and to adopt a descriptive approach towards the study of translated literature. Descriptive translation theorists attempt to account not only for textual strategies in the translated text, but also for the way in which the translation functions in the target cultural system. The implications that these recent theoretical developments have for Bible translation practice and criticism of Bible translations are arrived at in the last instance.
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| * Naudé, J.A. / C.H.J. Van der Merwe (2002): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/5450/29588 Introduction [zur Acta-Theologica-Sonderausgabe zum Thema „Übersetzung“]: contemporary translation studies and Bible translation], in: Acta Theologica 22/1. S. 1-5. | | * Naudé, J.A. / C.H.J. Van der Merwe (2002): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/5450/29588 Introduction [zur Acta-Theologica-Sonderausgabe zum Thema „Übersetzung“]: contemporary translation studies and Bible translation], in: Acta Theologica 22/1. S. 1-5. |
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| * Naudé, J.A. (2005): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/49018/35366 Twentieth-century English Bible translations], in: Acta Theologica 25/2. S. 70-89. | | * Naudé, J.A. (2005): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/49018/35366 Twentieth-century English Bible translations], in: Acta Theologica 25/2. S. 70-89. |
| : '''Abstract''': The twentieth century has emerged as a major period of Bible translations and publications. The article explores both the cultural and social circumstances under which the English Bible translations of the twentieth century were produced and aspects relating to the translation process and reception. It offers insights into the underlying objectives and qualities of translations as well as the tradition from which they stem. The primary concern for meaning and readability has influenced the nature of Bible translation of this period, breaking down the socio-cultural distance between modern readers and the original contexts of the Bible.
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| * Naudé, J.A. (2007): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/5504/29618 Stylistic Vatiations In Three English Translations Of The Dead Sea Scrolls], in: Acta Theologica 27/2. S. 143-167. | | * Naudé, J.A. (2007): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/5504/29618 Stylistic Vatiations In Three English Translations Of The Dead Sea Scrolls], in: Acta Theologica 27/2. S. 143-167. |
| : '''Abstract''': Since the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1947 different English translations were published. In this article the stylistic variation of three of these translations are analysed. It is suggested that the issue of stylistic variation boils down to linguistically inscribed preference in the choice and construction of discourses in the translated texts, i.e. a case of identifying the norms governing the patterning of translational behaviour within a given socio-cultural milieu. Vermes' translation demonstrates the tendency to simplify the language used in translation. In the translation by Wise, Abegg & Cook there is an overall tendency to spell things out rather than leave them implicit. The translation of García Martínez demonstrates the trend towards general textual conventionality as opposed to textual creativity as in the case of the translation of Wise, Abegg & Cook and Vermes.
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| * Pelkey, Jamin R. / Michael R. Walrod (2010): [http://www.sil.org/siljot/2010/1/928474542778/siljot2010-1-02.pdf Four Faces, Eight Places: Elaborate Expression, Emergent Meaning, and Translation as Discourse Art], in: JOT 1/10. S. 11-26. | | * Pelkey, Jamin R. / Michael R. Walrod (2010): [http://www.sil.org/siljot/2010/1/928474542778/siljot2010-1-02.pdf Four Faces, Eight Places: Elaborate Expression, Emergent Meaning, and Translation as Discourse Art], in: JOT 1/10. S. 11-26. |
| : '''Abstract''': This paper lights a torch at the dual flame of Paul Ricoeur‘s interaction theory of meaning and Northrop Frye‘s centripetal theory of meaning to shed light on the little discussed implications of "four-syllable elaborate expressions"—polyfunctional poetic phrases that frequently surface both in Chinese discourse and in various translations of the Chinese Bible. The term "emergent text-level meaning" (Walrod 2007) describes the gestalt semantics of a given text which, much like consciousness, cannot be reduced to the sum of its conventionally defined parts. Four-syllable elaborate expressions are common in the languages of East and Southeast Asia and involve aesthetically pleasing, often ancient, combinations of monosyllabic morpheme pairs that constitute microcosmic texts in themselves. For example, ???? 'four faces, eight places' is the Dangdai Yiben (Chinese Living Version) rendering of the Job 37:3 phrase, ?????????? ????????? or 'the wings of the earth', usually translated, "the ends of the earth" in English. Applying insights from the metaphor-oriented hermeneutics of Ricoeur (1981) and Frye (2006), we argue that four-syllable elaborate expressions illustrate some of the ways in which "metaphor" and "text" function interdependently. The meaning that emerges from this interaction of microcosm and macrocosm is itself dependent on an often overlooked factor: the successful integration of a poetic imagination conversant with the dynamics of language and thought in a given socio-geographical context—in this case, East Asia. Our conclusions have implications for philosophy of language and translation theory alike. | | |
| | * Rüth, Lisa: [https://www.academia.edu/405115/Die_Skopostheorie_nach_Reiss_Vermeer_Ein_Uberlick Die Skopostheorie nach Reiß/Vermeer: Ein Überlick] (academia.edu) |
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| | * Siebenthal, Heinrich von (2013): [http://www.fthgiessen.de/downloads/bersetzungHvSSept2013V1.2a.pdf Die deutsche Bibel. Welche Übersetzung hat recht?], Web-Veröffentlichung. Siebenthal erklärt für Laien verständlich, wie man Bibelübersetzungen bewerten kann und welche Übersetzungsmethoden es gibt. Danach kommentiert er viele deutsche Übersetzungen aus translatologischer, evangelikaler Perspektive. Gerade das macht den Aufsatz interessant. Seine methodische Einführung könnte für die Zwecke der Offenen Bibel als Referenz nützlich sein. |
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| * Smith, K. (2002): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/5456/29594 Translation as secondary communication. The relevance theory perspective of Ernst-August Gutt], in: Acta Theologica 22/1. S. 107-117. | | * Smith, K. (2002): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/5456/29594 Translation as secondary communication. The relevance theory perspective of Ernst-August Gutt], in: Acta Theologica 22/1. S. 107-117. |
| : '''Abstract''': Ernst-August Gutt started one of the greatest translation debates of the past ten years when he suggested that relevance theory holds the key to providing a unified account of translation. The bulk of the debate has been between practitioners of functional equivalence and advocates of a relevance theoretic approach to translation. However, opponents of the relevance theoretic approach have widely misunderstood Gutt's claims and objectives, with the result that too much discussion has focused on minor points of his account of translation. This article will attempt to clarify his objectives and claims, and to clear up some common misunderstandings about the implications of embracing a relevance theoretic approach to translation.
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| * Tauberschmidt, Gerhard (2005) [http://www.sil.org/siljot/2005/1/46691/siljot2005-1-05.pdf Considerations for OT translation], in: JOT 1/05. S. 61-73. | | * Tauberschmidt, Gerhard (2005) [http://www.sil.org/siljot/2005/1/46691/siljot2005-1-05.pdf Considerations for OT translation], in: JOT 1/05. S. 61-73. |
| : '''Abstract''': Old Testament translation brings new challenges. This article touches on some of the areas which may need special attention when translating the Hebrew Bible. These include textual issues, hapax legomena, genre, and poetical language. Textual problems in the OT are more difficult to handle compared to those in the NT. Rare words or words that occur only once are more frequent and difficult to explain. Some of the text types differ from those of the NT and need to be investigated because they can influence our exegesis. Finally, the poetical language is richer and more abundant and may challenge some of our translation theories. The article does not cover these issues in any depth but is intended to raise awareness, give guidance, and suggest some further helps. | | |
| | * van der Louw, Theodorus Antonie Willem (2006): [https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/handle/1887/4282 Transformations in the Septuagint: towards an interaction of Septuagint studies and translation studies]. Leiden. |
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| * Van der Merwe, C.H.J. (2002): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/5462/29600 An overview of recent developments in the description of Biblical Hebrew relevant to Bible translation], in: Acta Theologica 22/1. S. 228-245. | | * Van der Merwe, C.H.J. (2002): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/5462/29600 An overview of recent developments in the description of Biblical Hebrew relevant to Bible translation], in: Acta Theologica 22/1. S. 228-245. |
| : '''Abstract''': Describing the system of an ancient language like Biblical Hebrew is an enormous challenge. Biblical Hebrew scholars through the years concentrated on the formal features of limited data at their disposal. However, a new paradigm in the study of language has provided a fresh perspective on aspects of language that was up till now either not fully appreciated, misunderstood or not even noticed. Improved models of what people do with language, and which include the social, cognitive and cultural aspects of language, now provide explanations for linguistic expressions that translators up till now believed they may or should leave untranslated. These models, among other things, have shown that texts are more than strings of clauses, each with their own propositional content. There are a variety of linguistic signs that have no referential meaning or syntactic function, but act as overt navigation signals for the way in which the information is supposed to be processed. These signals do not only invoke a relationship between the clauses, or clusters of clauses, contained in a text, but may also involve the entire cognitive worlds of all the participants of the communicative situation. These developments may shed new light on the interpretation and translation of the Biblical text.
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| * van der Spuy, R. (2010): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/67258/55356 „Showing respect“ in bible translation], in: Acta Theologica 30/1. S. 158-173. | | * van der Spuy, R. (2010): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/67258/55356 „Showing respect“ in bible translation], in: Acta Theologica 30/1. S. 158-173. |
| : '''Abstract''': This article focuses on the way respect is shown by using 2nd person personal pronouns in languages that distinguish between you plural (you all), you honorific (polite) and you singular (familiar) forms. It discusses the likely influence of the well known Russian Synodal Translation on other translations in the former Soviet Union regarding the usage of the 2nd person personal pronouns. This article also highlights by way of comparison how Afrikaans and other Western translations use the 2nd person personal pronoun. Problems often arise when the original languages are followed too literally without taking into account the target culture, or due to the translators’ perception of the social status of the engaging referents. Issues discussed and principles drawn from this study not only apply to the Russian world, but also influence all translations that have a set of 2nd person personal pronouns that distinguishes between 2nd person singular, plural and polite forms.
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| * Van der Watt, J.G. (2002): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/5463/29601 What happens when one picks up the Greek text?], in: Acta Theologica 22/1. S. 246-265. | | * Van der Watt, J.G. (2002): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/5463/29601 What happens when one picks up the Greek text?], in: Acta Theologica 22/1. S. 246-265. |
| : '''Abstract''': A few issues of hermeneutic nature related to Bible translation are considered. It is argued that the chosen philosophical framework (for instance, a modernist or postmodern approach) determines the way in which any process of translation is approached. Attention then shifts to some of the presuppositions and assumptions of literal translations. These presuppositions are discussed critically. Another factor determining the nature of a translation is the intended function of that particular translation. If, for instance, the intended function is to be understandable for ordinary, present-day readers, a meaning-orientated translation would be preferable. Lastly, the role of interpretation in the translation process is considered. The assumption that no interpretation takes place in the case of word-for word translations is critiqued.
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| * Weber, David J. (2005): [http://www.sil.org/siljot/2005/2/46695/siljot2005-2-04.pdf A tale of two translation theories], in: JOT 2/05. S. 35-74. | | * Weber, David J. (2005): [http://www.sil.org/siljot/2005/2/46695/siljot2005-2-04.pdf A tale of two translation theories], in: JOT 2/05. S. 35-74. |
| : '''Abstract''': This paper considers two theories of communication and the theories of translation shaped by them. First, the Code Model of communication is characterized and reasons are presented for why it is an inadequate and misleading theory of communication. Then Source-Meaning-Receptor theories of translation that were shaped by the Code Model are characterized and their inadequacies surveyed. Second, the Relevance Theory of communication is introduced. Then Gutt’s Relevance Theory-based theory of translation is sketched and its dramatic implications for translation are surveyed. Finally, broader implications of the shift from a Code Model to a Relevance Theory perspective are considered, including implications for the praxis of translation, the checking of translations, and the training of translators.
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| * Wendland, E.R. (2002): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/5459/29597 Towards a „literary“ translation of the Scriptures: with special reference to a „poetic“ rendition], in: Acta Theologica 22/1. S. 164-201. | | * Wendland, E.R. (2002): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/5459/29597 Towards a „literary“ translation of the Scriptures: with special reference to a „poetic“ rendition], in: Acta Theologica 22/1. S. 164-201. |
| : '''Abstract''': This study proposes a more dynamic, or "mediated, " approach to Bible translation as one possible option (among many), should this be called for by the contextual circumstances of the target language setting. Such a method features a genre-based, functional application of interlingual discourse analysis and representation that aims to reproduce the literary (especially the "poetic") quality and energy of the original text (certain aspects of its structure, style, impact, and appeal) within a new linguistic and sociocultural environment. The importance of this local milieu requires the active participation of the target language community during the formulation and execution of an appropriate translation brief, or planning document, including the project's principal communicative purpose (skopos). Another important variable to be examined is the primary channel of textual representation. Here, the oral-aural mode is emphasised due to its particular relevance in Africa. My presentation concludes with an overview of some of the critical cost-versus-gain factors that need to be considered when planning for the production of a literary version.
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| * Werner, Eberhard (2012): [http://www.sil.org/siljot/2012/1/928474548941/siljot2012-1-01.pdf Toward an Ethical Code in Bible Translation Consulting], in: JOT 1/12. S. 1-8. | | * Werner, Eberhard (2012): [http://www.sil.org/siljot/2012/1/928474548941/siljot2012-1-01.pdf Toward an Ethical Code in Bible Translation Consulting], in: JOT 1/12. S. 1-8. |
| : '''Abstract''': One of the great unknowns remaining in Bible translation projects is a formal understanding of the ethical foundations needed for the consulting task. Although this is also true for consultants in anthropology, linguistics and related disciplines, the focus of this article will be on translation consulting. Ethical standards in Bible translation projects must also be examined regarding the translation team and other parties involved, but this article will focus on the consultant. To whom are consultants responsible? Is it to the initiating institution or organization, to the individual’s or a people group’s conscience, to God, to the translation team, or to the translation project? How do all parties know about their ethics? And, at the very least, how do the parties involved handle ethical considerations, such as disagreement, mutual aversion, rejection or cross-cultural differences? Because there is a void in this area, consultants and others involved often experience misunderstanding and distrust, and thus the quality of the Bible translation or the consulted product is at risk. This is caused by cross-cultural issues, divergent expectations about translation issues, vague job descriptions and understanding, lack of frameworks and planning, etc. Some of the difficulties that Bible translation projects face, and how these challenges could be overcome, will be addressed. The term “loyalty,” borrowed from functional translation approaches, will be introduced to the process of Bible translation consulting. Finally, a proposal toward an ethical statement of standards for consultants will be drafted.
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| * Wilt, T. (2002): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/5458/29596 A new framework for Bible translation], in: Acta Theologica 22/1. S. 140-163. | | * Wilt, T. (2002): [http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/view/5458/29596 A new framework for Bible translation], in: Acta Theologica 22/1. S. 140-163. |
| : '''Abstract''': Since the time in which Nida and Taber published The theory and practice of translation, there have been dramatic changes in the communication situations of Bible translation throughout the world. Further, advances in a variety of academic disciplines have enabled us to recognise and move beyond shortcomings of that work's portrayal of language, communication and translation. A recent project by the United Bible Societies has attempted to provide a more contemporary framework for understanding Bible translation. This paper focuses on the communication model developed for this project. Avoiding the fallacy of the conduit metaphor of communication, it explicitly refers to the goals of the participants in a communication situation and the organisational as well as sociocultural frames within which texts are produced and perceived. The framework suggested by this model encourages viewing translation as a process involving churches, communities and publishers as well as translators and choosing a particular translation approach in terms of mutually agreed upon goals. The Bible translation process may involve not just producing a text to represent the sacred text, but also supplementary texts to enhance understanding and appreciation of both the translation and the translated. | | |
| | * Wolfers, David (1989): [http://jbq.jewishbible.org/assets/Uploads/17/jbq_17.3.pdf Modern Biblical Translations]. |
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| | * Wolfers, David (1990): [http://jbq.jewishbible.org/assets/Uploads/18/jbq_18.3.pdf The Humpty Dumpty Principle in Biblical Translation]. |
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| * Zhonggang, Sang (2006): [http://www.sil.org/siljot/2006/2/48007/siljot2006-2-05.pdf A relevance theory perspective on translating the Implicit Information in literary texts], in: JOT 2/06. S. 43-60. | | * Zhonggang, Sang (2006): [http://www.sil.org/siljot/2006/2/48007/siljot2006-2-05.pdf A relevance theory perspective on translating the Implicit Information in literary texts], in: JOT 2/06. S. 43-60. |
| : '''Abstract''': As one type of cross-cultural communication, the literary translation is more difficult for the translator as he has to deal with a large chunk of implicit information. The implicit information has as its characteristics, such as graded communicability, context-dependence, the correlation among the implicit information, text and context, etc. These characteristics restrict the communicability of the literary texts in another context, so the translator of the literary texts often finds more difficulties in translating. Encouraged by Gutt’s theory and his recent findings, this article adopts a relevance-theory approach and attempts to present a cognitive study of the implicit information in literary texts. It experiments with building an explanatory framework for translating the implicit information in literary texts. The framework is based on a new notion: translation is clues-based interpretive use of language across language boundaries.
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